One of the first algorithmic trading strategies consisted of using a volume-weighted average price, as the price at which orders would be executed. The VWAP introduced by Berkowitz et al. can be calculated as the dollar amount traded for every transaction (price times shares traded) divided by the total shares traded for a given period. If the price of a buy order is lower than the VWAP, the trade is executed; if the price is higher, then the trade is not executed. Participants wishing to lower the market impact of their trades stress the importance of market volume. Market volume impact can be measured through comparing the execution price of an order to a benchmark. The VWAP benchmark is the sum of every transaction price paid, weighted by its volume. VWAP strategies allow the order to dilute the impact of orders through the day. Most institutional trading occurs in filling orders that exceed the daily volume. When large numbers of shares must be traded, liquidity concerns can affect price goals. For this reason, some firms offer multiday VWAP strategies to respond to customers’ requests. In order to further reduce the market impact of large orders, customers can specify their own volume participation by limiting the volume of their orders to coincide with low expected volume days. Each order is sliced into several days’ orders and then sent to a VWAP engine for the corresponding days. VWAP strategies fall into three categories: sell order to a broker-dealer who guarantees VWAP; cross the order at a future date at VWAP; or trade the order with the goal of achieving a price of VWAP or better.
The second algorithmic trading strategy is the time-weighted average price (TWAP). TWAP allows traders to slice a trade over a certain period of time, thus an order can be cut into several equal parts and be traded throughout the time period specified by the order. TWAP is used for orders which are not dependent on volume. TWAP can overcome obstacles such as fulfilling orders in illiquid stocks with unpredictable volume. Conversely, high-volume traders can also use TWAP to execute their orders over a specific time by slicing the order into several parts so that the impact of the execution does not significantly distort the market.
Yet, another type of algorithmic trading strategy is the implementation shortfall or the arrival price. The implementation shortfall is defined as the difference in return between a theoretical portfolio and an implemented portfolio. When deciding to buy or sell stocks during portfolio construction, a portfolio manager looks at the prevailing prices (decision prices). However, several factors can cause execution prices to be different from decision prices. This results in returns that differ from the portfolio manager’s expectations. Implementation shortfall is measured as the difference between the dollar return of a paper portfolio (paper return) where all shares are assumed to transact at the prevailing market prices at the time of the investment decision and the actual dollar return of the portfolio (real portfolio return). The main advantage of the implementation shortfall-based algorithmic system is to manage transactions costs (most notably market impact and timing risk) over the specified trading horizon while adapting to changing market conditions and prices.
The participation algorithm or volume participation algorithm is used to trade up to the order quantity using a rate of execution that is in proportion to the actual volume trading in the market. It is ideal for trading large orders in liquid instruments where controlling market impact is a priority. The participation algorithm is similar to the VWAP except that a trader can set the volume to a constant percentage of total volume of a given order. This algorithm can represent a method of minimizing supply and demand imbalances (Kendall Kim – Electronic and Algorithmic Trading Technology).
Smart order routing (SOR) algorithms allow a single order to exist simultaneously in multiple markets. They are critical for algorithmic execution models. It is highly desirable for algorithmic systems to have the ability to connect different markets in a manner that permits trades to flow quickly and efficiently from market to market. Smart routing algorithms provide full integration of information among all the participants in the different markets where the trades are routed. SOR algorithms allow traders to place large blocks of shares in the order book without fear of sending out a signal to other market participants. The algorithm matches limit orders and executes them at the midpoint of the bid-ask price quoted in different exchanges.
Handbook of Trading Strategies for Navigating and Profiting From Currency, Bond, Stock Markets
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