If the conventional symbolic model mandates a creation of theory that is sought to address the issues pertaining to the problem, this mandatory theory construction is bypassed in case of distributed representational systems, since the latter is characterized by a large number of interactions occurring in a nonlinear fashion. No such attempts at theoretical construction are to be made in distributed representational systems for fear of high end abstraction, thereby sucking off the nutrient that is the hallmark of the model. Distributed representation is likely to encounter onerous issues if the size of the network inflates, but the issue is addressed through what is commonly known as redundancy technique, whereby, a simultaneous encoding of information generated by numerous interactions take place, thus ameliorating the adequacy of presenting the information to the network. In the words of Paul Cilliers, this is an important point, for,
the network used for the model of a complex system will have to have the same level of complexity as the system itself….However, if the system is truly complex, a network of equal complexity may be the simplest adequate model of such a system, which means that it would be just as difficult to analyze as the system itself.
Following, he also presents a caveat,
This has serious methodological implications for the scientists working with complex systems. A model which reduces the complexity may be easier to implement, and may even provide a number of economical descriptions of the system, but the price paid for this should be considered carefully.
One of the outstanding qualities of distributed representational systems is their adaptability. Adaptability, in the sense of reusing the network to be applicable to other problems to offer solutions. Exactly, what this connotes is, the learning process the network has undergone for a problem ‘A’, could be shared for problem ‘B’, since many of the input neurons are bounded by information learned through ‘A’ that could be applicable to ‘B’. In other words, the weights are the dictators for solving or resolving issues, no matter, when and for which problem the learning took place. There is a slight hitch here, and that being this quality of generalizing solutions could suffer, if the level of abstraction starts to shoot up. This itself could be arrested, if in the initial stages, the right kind of framework is decided upon, thus obscuring the hitch to almost non-affective and non-existence impacting factor. The very notion of weights is considered here by Sterelny as a problematic, and he takes it to attack distributed representation in general and connectionsim as a whole in particular. In an analogically witty paragraph, Sterelny says,
There is no distinction drawable, even in principle, between functional and non- functional connections. A positive linkage between two nodes in a distributed network might mean a constitutive link (eg. Catlike, in a network for tiger); a nomic one (carnivore, in the same network), or a merely associative one (in my case, a particular football team that play in black and orange.
It should be noted that this criticism on weights is derived, since for Sterelny, relationship between distributed representations and the micro-features that compose them is deeply problematic. If such is the criticism, then no doubt, Sterelny still seems to be ensconced within the conventional semantic/symbolic model. And since, all weights can take part in information processing, there is some sort of a democratic liberty that is accorded to the weights within a distributed representation, and hence any talk of constitutive, nomic, or even for that matter associative is mere humbug. Even if there is a disagreement prevailing that a large pattern of weights are not convincing enough for an explanation, as they tend to complicate matters, the distributed representational systems work consistently enough as compared to an alternative system that offers explanation through reasoning, and thereby, it is quite foolhardy to jettison the distributed representation by the sheer force of criticism. If the neural network can be adapted to produce the correct answer for a number of training cases that is large compared with the size of the network, it can be trusted to respond correctly to the previously unseen cases provided they are drawn from the same population using the same distribution as the training cases, thus undermining the commonly held idea that explanations are the necessary feature of the trustworthy systems (Baum and Haussler). Another objection that distributed representation faces is that, if representations are distributed, then the probability of two representations of the same thing as different from one another cannot be ruled out. So, one of them is the true representation, while the other is only an approximation of the representation.(1) This is a criticism of merit and is attributed to Fodor, in his influential book titled Psychosemantics.(2) For, if there is only one representation, Fodor would not shy from saying that this is the yucky solution, folks project believe in. But, since connectionism believes in the plausibility of indeterminate representations, the question of flexibility scores well and high over the conventional semantic/symbolic models, and is it not common sense to encounter flexibility in daily lives? The other response to this objection comes from post-structuralist theories (Baudrillard is quite important here. See the first footnote below). The objection of true representation, and which is a copy of the true representation meets its pharmacy in post-structuralism, where meaning is constituted by synchronic as well as diachronic contextualities, and thereby supplementing the distributed representation with a no-need-for concept and context, as they are inherent in the idea of such a representation itself. Sterelny, still seems to ride on his obstinacy, and in a vitriolic tone poses his demand to know as to why distributed representation should be regarded as states of the system at all. Moreover, he says,
It is not clear that a distributed representation is a representation for the connectionist system at all…given that the influence of node on node is local, given that there is no processor that looks at groups of nodes as a whole, it seems that seeing a distributed representation in a network is just an outsider’s perspective on the system.
This is moving around in circles, if nothing more. Or maybe, he was anticipating what G. F. Marcus would write and echo to some extent in his book The Algebraic Mind. In the words of Marcus,
…I agree with Stemberger(3) that connectionism can make a valuable contribution to cognitive science. The only place, we differ is that, first, he thinks that the contribution will be made by providing a way of eliminating symbols, whereas I think that connectionism will make its greatest contribution by accepting the importance of symbols, seeking ways of supplementing symbolic theories and seeking ways of explaining how symbols could be implemented in the brain. Second, Stemberger feels that symbols may play no role in cognition; I think that they do.
Whatever Sterelny claims, after most of the claims and counter-claims that have been taken into account, the only conclusion for the time being is that distributive representation has been undermined, his adamant position to be notwithstanding.
(1) This notion finds its parallel in Baudrillard’s Simulation. And subsequently, the notion would be invoked in studying the parallel nature. Of special interest is the order of simulacra in the period of post-modernity, where the simulacrum precedes the original, and the distinction between reality and representation vanishes. There is only the simulacrum and the originality becomes a totally meaningless concept.
(2) This book is known for putting folk psychology firmly on the theoretical ground by rejecting any external, holist and existential threat to its position.
(3) Joseph Paul Stemberger is a professor in the Department of Linguistics at The University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, with primary interests in phonology, morphology, and their interactions. My theoretical orientations are towards Optimality Theory, employing our own version of the theory, and towards connectionist models.
AltExploit 